Supplementary material S1: GPS collars have an apparent positive effect on the survival of a large carnivore

Are instrumented animals representative of the population, given the potential bias caused by selective sampling and the influence of capture, handling and wearing bio-loggers? The answer is elusive due to the challenges of obtaining comparable data from individuals with and without bio-loggers. Using non-invasive genetic data of a large carnivore, the wolverine (Gulo gulo) in Scandinavia and an open-population spatial capture–recapture model, we found a 16 (credible interval: 4–30) percentage points lower mortality probability for GPS-collared individuals compared to individuals without GPS collars. While the risk of dying from legal culling was comparable for collared and non-collared wolverines, the former experienced lower mortality probabilities due to causes other than legal culling. The aforementioned effect was pronounced despite a potentially lower age, and, therefore, likely higher natural mortality, of collared individuals. Reports of positive effects of bio-loggers on the survival of individuals are uncommon and we argue that GPS collars could shield animals from poaching. Our results highlight the challenges of drawing population-level inferences for populations subjected to poaching when using data from instrumented individuals.