Primers used for qPCR.

Acute gastrointestinal infection with intracellular pathogens like Salmonella Typhimurium triggers the release of the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin 1β (IL-1β). However, the role of IL-1β in intestinal defense against Salmonella remains unclear. Here, we show that IL-1β production is detrimental during Salmonella infection. Mice lacking IL-1β (IL-1β ^-/-) failed to recruit neutrophils to the gut during infection, which reduced tissue damage and prevented depletion of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing commensals. Changes in epithelial cell metabolism that typically support pathogen expansion, such as switching energy production from fatty acid oxidation to fermentation, were absent in infected IL-1β ^-/- mice which inhibited Salmonella expansion. Additionally, we found that IL-1β induces expression of complement anaphylatoxins and suppresses the complement-inactivator carboxypeptidase N (CPN1). Disrupting this process via IL-1β loss prevented mortality in Salmonella-infected IL-1β ^-/- mice. Finally, we found that IL-1β expression correlates with expression of the complement receptor in patients suffering from sepsis, but not uninfected patients and healthy individuals. Thus, Salmonella exploits IL-1β signaling to outcompete commensal microbes and establish gut colonization. Moreover, our findings identify the intersection of IL-1β signaling and the complement system as key host factors involved in controlling mortality during invasive Salmonellosis.