Retraction and correction likelihood, by country characteristics.

Conditional logistic regression estimates of the association between country of author and likelihood to publish a paper that was later retracted or corrected. Effects are estimated by comparison with matched–control papers. Numbers in parentheses indicate the total number of papers from the specified country that are in the sample, respectively, of corrections and retractions. Each panel represents the results of two multivariable analyses, in which samples for correction and for retraction were analysed using identical models. The indicator reference category was USA (N: 1979 – 449) for panel A, and a generic “other countries” category in all other panels. The “other” category in panel A includes all countries with ≤90 data points in the sample. See Table 1 and Methods for further details.