Supplementary material from "Upstroke wing clapping in bats and bat-inspired robots offers efficient lift generation. "

Wing articulation is critical for efficient flight of bird- and bat-sized animals. Inspired by the flight of Cynopterus brachyotis, the lesser short-nosed fruit bat, we built a two-degree-of-freedom flapping wing platform with variable wing folding capability. In late upstroke, the wings ”clap” and produce an air jet that significantly increases lift production, with a positive peak matched to that produced in downstroke. Though ventral clapping has been observed in avian flight, potential aerodynamic benefit of this behavior has yet to be rigorously assessed. We used multiple approaches – quasi-steady modeling, direct force/power measurement, and PIV experiments in a wind tunnel – to understand critical aspects of lift/power variation in relation to wing folding magnitude over Strouhal numbers between 𝑆𝑡 = 0.2 − 0.4. While lift increases monotonically with folding amplitude in that range, power economy (ratio of lift/power) is more nuanced. At 𝑆𝑡 = 0.2 − 0.3, it increase with wing folding amplitude monotonically. At 𝑆𝑡 = 0.3 − 0.4, it features two maxima – one at medium folding amplitude (∼30°), and the other at maximum folding. These findings illuminate two strategies available to animals or bio-inspired robots – symmetry-breaking lift augmentation and appendage-based jet propulsion.