Supplementary material from "Non-adaptive origins of evolutionary innovations increase network complexity in interacting digital organisms^†"

The origin of evolutionary innovations is a central problem in evolutionary biology. To what extent such innovations have adaptive or non-adaptive origins is hard to assess in real organisms. This limitation, however, can be overcome using digital organisms, i.e. self-replicating computer programs that mutate, evolve and coevolve within a user-defined computational environment. Here, we quantify the role of the non-adaptive origins of host resistance traits in determining the evolution of ecological interactions among host and parasite digital organisms. We find that host resistance traits arising spontaneously as exaptations increase the complexity of antagonistic host–parasite networks. Specifically, they lead to higher host phenotypic diversification, larger number of ecological interactions and higher heterogeneity in interaction strengths. Given the potential of network architecture to affect network dynamics, such exaptations may increase the persistence of entire communities. Our ‘in silico’ approach, therefore, may complement current theoretical advances aimed at disentangling the ecological and evolutionary mechanisms shaping interaction networks of species.This article is part of the themed issue ‘Process and pattern in innovations from cells to societies’.