Supplementary material from "Hormetic response to pesticides in diapausing bees"

Pollinators face declines and diversity loss associated with multiple stressors, particularly pesticides. Most pollination services are provided by annual bees that undergo winter diapause and many common pesticides are highly soluble in water and move through soil and plants where bees hibernate and feed, yet the effects of pesticides on pollinators’ diapause survival and performance are poorly understood. Pesticides may have complex effects in bees, and some were shown to induce hormetic effects on various traits characterized by a high-dose inhibition coupled with low-dose stimulation. Here, we examined the occurrence of hormesis in the responses of bees to imidacloprid. We found that while longevity and reproduction were reduced following exposure to imidacloprid, the survival length of new queens (gynes) was greater. Diapause is a critical period in the life cycle of most bees with profound effects on their health. Exposure to sublethal doses of pesticides may increase bees’ resistance to stress/cold during diapause but may also trade off with reduced reproductive performance later in life. Identifying these tradeoffs is crucial to understanding how stressors affect pollinator health and should be accounted for when assessing pesticide risk, designing studies, and facilitate conservation and management tools for supporting annual bees during diapause.