Role of S‑Vacancy Concentration in Air Oxidation of WS₂ Single Crystals

Semiconducting transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) are a class of two-dimensional materials with potential applications in optoelectronics, spintronics, valleytronics, and quantum information processing. Understanding their stability under ambient conditions is critical for determining their in-air processability during device fabrication and for predicting their long-term device performance stability. While the effects of environmental conditions (i.e., oxygen, moisture, and light) on TMD degradation are well-acknowledged, the role of defects in driving their oxidation remains unclear. We conducted a systematic X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy study on WS₂ single crystals with different surface S-vacancy concentrations formed via controlled argon sputtering. Oxidation primarily occurred at defect concentrations ≥ 10%, resulting in stoichiometric WO₃ formation, while a stable surface was observed at lower concentrations. Theoretical calculations informed us that single S-vacancies do not spontaneously oxidize, while defect pairing at high vacancy concentrations facilitates O₂ dissociation and subsequent oxide formation. Our XPS results also point to vacancy-related structural and electrostatic disorder as the main origin for the p-type characteristics that persists even after oxidation. Despite the complex interplay between defects and TMD oxidation processes, our work unveils scientifically informed guidance for working effectively with TMDs.