Peloponnese (Archaic to Roman)

Introduction There have been several developments in the archaeology of the Peloponnese over the past year, which add to (or amend) the trends identified in last year’s report (AR 57 [2010–2011] 49). Those trends were increasing interdisciplinarity, an appreciation for scale and place as key concepts impacting archaeological interpretation and a more critical approach to topographic sources (both material and textual). These continue in the projects discussed below. To this list we may also add several other emerging trends. Of particular utility to researchers is the improvement in the dissemination of material via online resources. AGOnline has, I think, shown itself to be an increasingly valuable resource, especially as existing entries are reviewed and modified as new information emerges. The development of a dynamic and evolving database of archaeological materials relating to Greece, rather than a series of static entries, highlights the increasingly transient nature of archaeological knowledge. Added to this is the publication of the regional summaries of the various Ephoreias by the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs, Culture and Sports (www.yppo.gr/0/ anaskafes) covering 2000–2010, a resource that has yet to be fully exploited but has immeasurable potential. We might also identify an entrenchment or trend for consolidation amongst existing projects, both in a material and metaphorical sense. Budgets are squeezed everywhere, and in several cases we might read the impact of this in the growing focus on artefact studies and more restricted campaign objectives. A focus on the consolidation of knowledge, rather than the accumulation of new data from the field, is an almost inevitable outcome of reduced funding, but it has its benefits; the reassessment of artefact typologies, the refinement of ceramic chronologies, the synthesis of acquired data are all welcome.


Introduction
There have been several developments in the archaeology of the Peloponnese over the past year, which add to (or amend) the trends identified in last year's report (AR 57 [2010(AR 57 [ -2011). Those trends were increasing interdisciplinarity, an appreciation for scale and place as key concepts impacting archaeological interpretation and a more critical approach to topographic sources (both material and textual). These continue in the projects discussed below.
To this list we may also add several other emerging trends. Of particular utility to researchers is the improvement in the dissemination of material via online resources. AGOnline has, I think, shown itself to be an increasingly valuable resource, especially as existing entries are reviewed and modified as new information emerges. The development of a dynamic and evolving database of archaeological materials relating to Greece, rather than a series of static entries, highlights the increasingly transient nature of archaeological knowledge. Added to this is the publication of the regional summaries of the various Ephoreias by the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs, Culture and Sports (www.yppo.gr/0/ anaskafes) covering 2000-2010, a resource that has yet to be fully exploited but has immeasurable potential.
We might also identify an entrenchment or trend for consolidation amongst existing projects, both in a material and metaphorical sense. Budgets are squeezed everywhere, and in several cases we might read the impact of this in the growing focus on artefact studies and more restricted campaign objectives. A focus on the consolidation of knowledge, rather than the accumulation of new data from the field, is an almost inevitable outcome of reduced funding, but it has its benefits; the reassessment of artefact typologies, the refinement of ceramic chronologies, the synthesis of acquired data are all welcome.

Archaic period
Significant archaeological research relating to the Archaic period concentrated on religious sites and sanctuaries, with the mentioned renewed emphasis on artefact studies and consolidation evident. Carefully contextualized studies of various artefact types highlight the importance of viewing artefacts as components of broader assemblages, rather than simply viewing them as representative of standard 'types'.
At the Sanctuary of Poseidon at Isthmia (as reported by E. Gebhard [ASCSA/Chicago]) (ID2489), analyses of burned pottery and Corinthian comparanda from dated contexts suggest that the Archaic temple was destroyed in a fire in 460-450 BC. Continued artefact studies of the mortaria from the Great Circular Reservoir show that all of them belong to the first half of the fifth century or the midfifth century, supporting the hypothesis that the area of the reservoir was used for food preparation and feasting from ca. 550-450 BC.
Perhaps the most significant development at Isthmia comes from continued study of recovered votive figurines. A group from the Sacred Glen west of the temenos of Poseidon is more typical of dedications for female deities, and, when judged alongside two fourth-century inscribed dedications to Demeter, suggests a shrine to the goddess existed here.
Study of the figurines from the Sanctuary of Poseidon highlight dedicatory trends: bulls were popular in the seventh century but declined in number until disappearing in the fifth century. Human figurines, mostly female, occur outside the main temenos. Twenty four boat models dating from the later seventh through to the late sixth/early fifth century were identified. Horse-and-riders (ca. 250) remain the most ubiquitous group, though four small shields were recovered from the temenos floor from the late sixth and fifth centuries BC. Other animals remain rare, and figurines decline sharply in number over the Classical period before disappearing in the course of the fourth and third centuries. Assessing these artefacts as part of a broader contextualized archaeological landscape, in association with other classes of material culture, shows how even long-studied religious landscapes can provide new knowledge. The changing face of ritual deposition over time, the plurality of potential religious observation within particular landscapes, all speak to practices that were flexible and responsive to the social requirements of the local communities.
Within and around ancient Corinth (www.yppo.gr/0/ anaskafes 111-13), a wealth of information has been recovered from rescue excavations, many conducted in advance of construction of the high-speed railway and the widening of the national road from Corinth to Patras (ID2492, ID2493). The 37 th EPCA (previously the 4 th EPCA) reports the discovery of 12 Archaic larnax burials, mostly unadorned, two of which were children, 73 graves from an Archaic cemetery (34 contained offerings) and a further 160 graves of different types and indeterminate periods (but including Bronze Age chamber tombs). Within ancient Corinth at Loutsa (Lazarou-Angelou property) 38 Archaic to Hellenistic tombs were uncovered (ID2495). The tombs had no consistent orientation and were varied in terms of grave goods. Simple pit graves, pits with tile covers and sarcophagi were all represented and typical offerings consisted of lekythoi, aryballoi, oinochoae, skyphoi, miniature vases, gold leaf and bronze earrings.
During the widening of the national road, a quarry was discovered to the north of ancient Corinth (ID2493). The few portable finds indicate that the quarry was used during the Archaic period, perhaps for the manufacture of sarcophagi for the neighbouring Archaic and Classical cemetery, and for the Archaic city wall (Fig. 56). West of the quarry, excavation for a bridge revealed an Archaic 56. Ancient Corinth: quarry. © Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs, Culture and Sports: 37 th EPCA. cemetery. Thirty tombs were excavated, four of which were child burials: nine larnax burials, seven cist graves, 12 pits with limestone cover slabs and two pits without covers. The information is admittedly patchy, but it speaks to a commemorative landscape of some duration surrounding the polis of Corinth. The implications for our understanding of burial practices are quite tantalizing: not only does it represent a corpus of over 300 graves from over 500 years of the region's history, but it is highly suggestive of the consistent memorial character of some elements of the landscape.
Further south in the Corinthia, consolidation can be seen in the continuation of work to restore the entablature at the northeast corner of the Temple of Zeus at Nemea, and in the careful excavation and study of material from beneath the Hellenistic Heroön.
K. Shelton (ASCSA/Berkeley) reports that seven of ten architrave blocks were restored fully with the final three nearing completion (ID2406). Carefully targeted excavation (Figs 57, 58) shows a greater investment in site formation during the Archaic period than previously suspected. Trenches 2, 5 (F19) and 4 (E19) focused on defining the western boundary wall of the Heroön, its phasing and relationship to its immediate surroundings. Alternating layers of soil and stones were built up against the slope of the hill to the east, and it is thought that this packing functioned as an embankment to redirect the river or perhaps prevent flooding. Early Archaic material within the accumulated fill strongly suggests an Archaic date for the artificial earthen mound.
Immediately outside the Hellenistic western Heroön enclosure wall, the Archaic enclosure wall rested directly upon an artificial sloping layer of tightly-packed large stones (ID1880; the 'rock garden' of AR 57 -2011Hesperia 50 [1981] 60-65). There is evidence of several construction phases, but for the moment the purpose is elusive -though likely related to the stone packing east of the enclosure. Archaic finds include a crushed, but mostly preserved and deliberately deposited, bronze omphalos phiale (Fig. 59) which was recovered from amongst the large stones along with fragments of an Attic black-figure vessel.
Two main phases of Archaic activity were revealed in G19. A foundation trench for a partially robbed wall (G19 wall i) provided an Archaic date for its construction. A number of other fills were uncovered, containing a number of whole pots (a kantharos, kotyle and cup/mug) deposited along with the mound layers. Overall, these phases date to the end of the sixth to the early fifth century and represent the final phase in the construction of the Heroön mound.
The full extent of wall ii (E19) was revealed, including the foundation course. Two construction techniques are in evidence: the eastern face consists of two or three courses of medium to very large cut limestone blocks, all likely reused, set in a quasi-polygonal fashion, while the western side is composed of much smaller irregularly-joined stones. On the north end of this wall, tightly-packed large leveling stones directly abut the western face and seem to be contemporary with, or later than, its construction. The wall foundations themselves rest on a level of large stones revealed at both the northern and southern ends (Fig. 60). The southernmost stones abut (and perhaps partially fill) a cutting into virgin clay soil similar to that in G19. The cutting and the stone feature both date to the Late Archaic/Early Classical period judging by recovered pottery, around the time of the construction of the Heroön mound or slightly later. The careful, even nuanced, recording of these features speaks to an extensive phase of landscape intervention in the Archaic period that set the stage for Classical and Hellenistic developments. In nearby Sikyon, E. Østby (ASA) (ID2487; Krystalli-Votsi and Østby [2010]) reports on a study of architectural members from the temple and altar excavated between 1928-1988 (first by A. Philadelpheus and A. Orlandos in the 1920s and 1930s, subsequently by K. Krystalli-Votsi in the 1980s). The temple had three construction phases, two Archaic (seventh and sixth centuries) and one Early Hellenistic. The Archaic altar was renovated in the Hellenistic period. A round base in the temple sekos probably supported a large tripod and perhaps sustains the identification of the temple as that of Apollo noted by Pausanias (2.7.8-9).
To the north of the Sikyonian plateau, the 37 th EPCA reports the discovery, in the course of motorway construction, of a Middle Geometric to Hellenistic cemetery (ID2500) (Fig. 61). Fifty five tombs were excavated, most of which were fifth-century pit tombs with cover slabs. Larnakes also contained single and multiple burials.
South of the Corinthia in Argos, rescue excavations by the 4 th EPCA have produced evidence for Archaic (and earlier) burials in various locations. On Herakleous Street (properties of A. Koutroubi and K. Theodoropoulou) (ID2411) a built cist tomb used for more than one burial and two enchytrismoi (without accompanying goods) in a krater with upswung handles and a pithos were recovered. At the junction of Korinthou and Heras Streets (property of P. and I. Bozionelou, reported originally in 2007) a Late Geometric to Early Archaic cemetery has been investi-gated (ID293). A bronze cinerary urn was found, containing the remains of sheets of cloth and pomegranate seeds (Fig. 62), perhaps an instance of aristocratic behaviour echoing poetic paradigms laid down in the Homeric epics.
In Tegea, Episkopi (property of G. Oikonomopoulou) the 39 th EPCA reports the discovery of an Early Archaic to Early Hellenistic potter's workshop, perhaps close to a shrine to judge from the nature of the finds: lion-head spouts, basins, marble roof tiles and Late Archaic to Early Classical fine pottery (ID2424). This is the first confirmed establishment for the local production of pottery.
In south Kynouria, Arkadia at Leonidio, Plaka, the 39 th EPCA reports that cleaning of the ancient city wall at Agios Athanasios revealed the full length of its northern branch (ID2436). Inside the fortification, the area was terraced with strong retaining walls with occasional tower-like projections. Trial excavation at Eurias, north of the wall, recovered much sixth-century Lakonian pottery (mostly black glaze but with distinctive kraters, lekanes and Lakonian kylikes) as well as some Late Corinthian sherds.
As mentioned above, the recent publication of the Ephoreias' work has expanded our picture of the memorial character of many ancient sites. Sparta is no exception. Within the online resource, the 9 th EPCA presents an overview of the results of rescue excavation from 2000-2010, which recovered Protogeometric, Geometric, Archaic and Classical pottery, architectural remains and a significant number of tombs, especially in the area of ancient Limnai and in the area south of the acropolis (ID2552). Votive deposits also confirm the location of a number of Archaic and Classical sanctuaries, though these remain unidentified in the particulars.
To the west, in Messenia at Π.Ο.Τ.Α. (Περιοχή Ολοκληρωμένης Τουριστικής Ανάπτυξης, Tourism Development Area) Romanou, Pylias, the 38 th EPCA reports the excavation, in the area of the golf course, of a long Archaic building (probably a temple), oriented east-west (ID2571). It had an internal colonnade and an undisturbed destruction deposit. The building remained in use into the Early Hellenistic period (Fig. 63). Just to the west of the temple was an open-air shrine with a large quantity of seventh-century BC terracotta figurines of Potnia Theron type. At Ano Melpeia, Petroula (Messenia, west of Megalopolis), X. Arapogianni (former Director, 38 th EPCA) reports on excavation following the discovery of a large quantity of architectural spolia during the demolition of the modern church of Prophitis Elias (ID2582). The foundations of a late sixth-or early fifth-century BC temple were revealed (Fig. 64), with maximum preserved dimensions of 20.65 × 10.75m. A small foundation within the building probably belongs to the first, Archaic, temple of the late sixth century. In addition to pottery (plus miniature vessels), finds include a bronze bracelet with snake-head finials, a bronze figurine of a naked warrior carrying a spear, a bronze rod terminating in a lion's head, a small bronze vessel, bronze sheet with a relief depiction of a procession of women carrying branches, iron nails, a large quantity of iron spearheads and a sherd with a dedicatory graffito: ΑΝΕΘΕΚΕΝ.
Further to the west, at Prasidaki (Elliniko), in 2002 the 7 th EPCA discovered a peripteral (6 × 13) Archaic temple of Athena Agonos at the site of an Early Classical Doric temple (ID2506). The temple appears to have been destroyed by an earthquake and subsequent fire in the first to second century AD. The base of the cult statue is preserved, and the roof had rich painted and plastic decoration. A recovered votive inscription on the lip of a bronze bowl provides the identification: ΑΘΑΝΑΙ ΑΓΟΡΙΟΙΣ ΑΡΙΟΥΝΤΙΑΣ ΑΝΕΘΕΚΕΝ. Settlement remains and tombs surrounded the temple (Fig. 65).
Far to the north, on Mygdalia Hill, Patras, L. Papazoglou-Manioudaki (National Archaeological Museum) directed the 2011 excavation season in the Mycenaean settlement. Of interest in the context of this chapter are the remains of the peristasis of an early Archaic temple that partially covered the ruins of the Mycenaean buildings and extended to the south (ID2340) (Figs 66, 67). Early Archaic pottery was recovered on top of the ruins of the Mycenaean wall. Αn iron dagger and a bronze strigil were found in situ by the base of the eastern peristasis, deposited at the time of the foundation. This is one of the first early Greek temples excavated in western Achaea (in the Patras area), and the existence of a cult building using the same local stone as the Mycenaean settlement and situated in a direct relationship with it is of some importance.

Classical period
Material from the Classical period was notable for its absence in the collated reports. The majority of the information reported here comes from rescue excavations, and presents no clear narrative but a rather patchy understanding. Such material does, however, have interesting implications for our understanding of assemblage formation and surface/subsurface relationships. Where Classical material is present on research projects, it is usually as one component amongst many -suggestive of a Classical 'shore' between waves of population nucleation and dispersal, perhaps.
At Corinth, various graves of the period were recovered during rescue excavations in advance of construction work, including a group of 12 graves (11 limestone sarcophagi and one pit). A 12m-long stretch of the western branch of the long walls between Corinth and Lechaion was traced, and several groups of graves (Classical through to Byzantine) were recorded in the vicinity (ID2492) (Fig. 68). A section of a 3.5m-wide paved road with wheel ruts was also recorded, running southeast-northwest.
Conservation activity on the Diolkos was undertaken in 2009-2010, under the auspices of the Ephoreia of Maritime Antiquities (ID2501) (Fig. 69). Recent publications on the diolkos (Lohmann [forthcoming]; Pettegrew [2011]) are leading to a radical revision of both its period of construction and its function (though consensus remains elusive). At Perdikaria (ancient Kromna), the 37 th EPCA discovered, in 2004-2005, an extensive Geometric and Classical cemetery (ID2496). Four Geometric pit graves, 18 Classical sarcophagi and a pit grave with a child burial were recorded. Only one of the Geometric graves contained any offerings (a pair of bronze spirals), but the Classical graves contained local and imported pottery, bronze and iron finds (rings and pins), and egg shells (Fig. 70). To the south, in the Argolid at Delpriza (Kranidi), A. Kossyva (4 th EPCA) reports part of a Classical (fifth-and fourth-century) cemetery of 43 graves on the eastern slope of a low hill, 700m south of Koilada bay (ID2408). The graves were situated in at least three rows on two artificial terraces, generally north-south in orientation. Twenty five of the graves are elliptical pits, and there were 11 tile graves (covered with Classical Lakonian tile). There were four cist graves. At least 38 adults and four infants are currently identified. The deceased were deposited directly on the earthen grave floor, mostly laid supine and extended, and there is currently no evidence for grave markers. The cemetery likely belongs to a rural community in a fertile area near the coastal town of Mases. A rural workshop with a stone oil press further north on the same hill is provisionally dated to the fourth to third century BC.
To the west in Arkadia, during rescue excavations in 2008 at Dimitsana (property of G. Petropoulou), the 39 th EPCA discovered part of the foundation of the fortification wall of ancient Teuthis (ID2432) (Fig. 71). The wall had two construction phases: the first, in the fifth century, was in pseudo-polygonal style and the second, in the polygonal style, is dated to the Late Classical or Early Hellenistic period.
South of this, and northeast of the village of Perivolia, the 39 th EPCA discovered, during the construction of the Megalopolis junction on the Tripolis to Kalamata motorway from 2008-2010, a planned settlement of the fifth and fourth centuries (though with evidence of occupation stretching back to the Geometric period) (ID2429). Residential insulae were organized around a regular grid of streets and stone-paved roads. The site, which lies outside modern Megalopolis, was identified before excavation with ancient Aimonion, mentioned by Pausanias (8.44.1).
In Messenia, at ancient Thouria, X. Arapogianni (ASA) continued excavation, clarifying the layout of the large public buildings on the terrace (ID2565)  southernmost, Building Γ, in 2010; see the summaries in ID1503, ID2083). The stylobate of Building Β, south of Building Α, was uncovered for a length of 11m. An Ionic colonnade runs parallel to Building Α, 4.2m away, and the two buildings, Α and Β, seem to form an Ionic stoa, from which many architectural members are preserved (Fig. 72).
Dedicatory inscriptions recovered from the south front of Building Γ record that two parents, Aristophanes and Philotis, dedicated a statue of their son Philoxenos to Asklepios and Hygeia. In the area between the temple and the stoa was a 0.2m thick layer indicative of cult activity: a large quantity of animal bones (pigs, wild boar, bovines and poultry), shells, sherds and ash was recovered. The inscriptions, together with the marble offering table discovered in 2009 and the inscribed 'treasure receptacle' of 2010, make the identification of the structure as a temple to Asklepios and Hygeia secure.
The survey of the poleis of ancient Triphylia continued into its sixth and final field season (ID2079). Situated southwest of Olympia, Triphylia was long a contested region of the Peloponnese. This season, as reported by G. Chatzi (Director, 7 th EPCA), J. Heiden (DAI) and C. Rohn (Rhein-Main), focused on consolidating and verifying information gathered in previous seasons, including topographic plans of Skilloundia, Samikon, Platiana, Lepreon, Vrestos, Tripiti and the Kastro above Anilio.
Extra-urban survey aimed to assess the extent of the poleis' choras and trace the road system. At Vrina, near a large funerary complex, a 100m-long stretch of ancient road ran along the northern slope of the Lapithos mountains and linked Samikon with the cities of eastern Triphylia. In Samikon itself, extensive building foundations below the city (Fig. 73) may belong to the federal sanctuary of the Triphylians (Strabo 8.3.13-20).
It is interesting to note that the surveyors discuss their work in terms of 'prospection', with an eye for topographic description reminiscent of the work of Y. Pikoulas (2007) and W. Pritchett (1999). The confluence of 'tried and true' techniques and computer-aided archaeology (as seen in their database containing photographs and architectural drawings at 1:50 for selected areas, with some 2D and 3D reconstructions, Fig. 74) is potentially at odds with more post-modern approaches to broader landscapes. It will be interesting to watch the development and publication of the results in light of this.
To the north, Olympia suffered a double shock in 2011-2012: the death of the prolific Nikolaos Yalouris at age of 92 and the armed robbery of the Museum of the History of the Olympic Games. These incidents are emblematic of two seismic changes facing Greek archaeology: the looming generational demographic shift and the increasing risk to heritage sites. Both of these challenges represent the potential loss of reams of archaeological data. At the archaeological site itself, work continued under R. Senff (DAI) in a bid to clarify the complex stratigraphy to the east of the Southeast Complex (ID2505). We might read in these works evidence of consolidation. The new sondage (Q 11.1) revealed a backfilled trench from Dörpfeld's excavations (Fig. 75), under which were many Classical coins and kiln spacers. The latter suggest a potter's workshop in the vicinity.
At the western end of the stadium starting line, excavation was conducted to explore remains previously identified in 1879. Part of the Roman starting mechanism was recovered in the form of a heavy lead weight (Fig.  76), and the original starting system seems to be evident in remains recovered at the northern end of the starting line.

Hellenistic and Roman periods
As with last year's report, I will discuss the Hellenistic and Roman periods together, partially due to the continuing issues of periodization and partially due to the nature of the reports themselves. Evident within many of the reports, however, is that same sense of retranchement, of bedding in and consolidating, that is discussed above.
For example, this can be seen in the re-examination of previously excavated structures at Corinth. Under the direction of G. Sanders (ASCSA), a 3D study of the Peirene court and water basins was completed, and C.K.
Williams II (ASCSA) undertook a restudy of the western part of the west hall of the theatre (ID2488). Some of the west analemma of the Greek theatre was exposed immediately beneath the earliest Roman levels. Evidence for two different types of buttresses used to reinforce the theatre within the first and second centuries AD was recovered in the west parodos adjacent to the west hall. A deep fill of Late Roman amphorae against the north wall of the west hall was partially excavated. The most numerous ceramic type was the two-handled Late Roman water jar from Asia Minor, suggestive of a nearby market or warehouse. Deposits of Late Roman and later material (sherds, and sheep and cattle bone primarily) testify to the length of use, even if its function as a theatre was long over.
Traces of Hellenistic occupation within Corinth were recovered in various rescue excavations. At Anapnoa (property of A. Papathanasopoulou) a cemetery was discovered alongside the road leading to the Phlious Gate (ID2494) and at Loutsa (Lazarou-Angelou property) a further 38 Archaic to Hellenistic tombs were recovered, along with a Roman kiln (ID2495). The relationship between the kiln and the graves is worth marking for further study, as it has the potential to cast some light on the so-called Interim period.
At the Sanctuary of Poseidon at Isthmia (ID2489), T. Gregory (Ohio) continued to explore the large Early Roman building reported in AR 57 (2010-2011) 57 (ID1883). In its northwestern corner were the remains of a furnace designed to heat an indeterminate space within the building: large quantities of soot and fragments of a heating system were found. The building was evidently not part of the second-century AD bath, but may have been a heated room added to the earlier, Classical, bath prior to construction of the Roman baths. There are interesting implications for the evolving use of water in post-Classical contexts, if the relationship between this structure, the Classical baths and the later Roman baths can be clarified.
To atypical of the region in the Early to Middle Roman period, and, most interestingly, there is no architectural evidence to support the published identification of the large north hall as a meeting room or cult space for Aphrodite (Aphrodision or Atrium Veneris: Scranton [1978] 79-90; perhaps suggested by Pausanius 2.2.3).
On the nearby Koutsongila Ridge, E. Korka (Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs, Culture and Sports), J.L. Rife (ASCSA/Vanderbilt) and K. Kissas (Director, 37 th EPCA) undertook a study season. A series of detailed studies on glass, metal items, architecture and ceramics was begun, but most troubling was the evidence of the five new illicit excavations in the northern and central areas of the ridge, disturbing several graves.
Disturbed graves of a different sort were recorded in the area of Sikyon by the 37 th EPCA. Thirty Mycenaean rockcut chamber and double cist graves were found, along with 42 fifth-to fourth-century pit graves. It appears as if the graves, of the earlier periods especially, formed an integral part of a memorial landscape steeped in the perception and reception of a mythic past. Evidence of ancestor worship was found at most of the chamber tombs from Late Protogeometric to Early Hellenistic times (Fig. 77).
A. Koutroubi and K. Theodoropoulou), rescue work carried out by the 4 th EPCA uncovered building remains of many periods on two plots close to the southeast slope of the Prophitis Elias hill (ID2411). Hellenistic (fourth-to thirdcentury) remains include stone house walls, three dumps of domestic pottery and three cremation burials in close proximity. It is tantalizing to ponder the exact relationship between the domestic dwellings and the cremation burials, which will hopefully become more clear in future.
Other glimpses into the funereal character of the broader landscape come from the junction of Diomedous and Megalou Alexandrou Streets (property of I. Alexopoulou) (ID2410). Ch. Piteraos (4 th EPCA) recovered a third-or second-century BC cremation burial in an amphora placed inside a rectangular receptacle (Figs  79, 80). Accompanying finds included a gold coin of Sikyon as the danake, a Rhodian silver coin, a gold wreath of olive or myrtle leaves and an iron ring. This rare ash urn perhaps contained the remains of an Argive athlete, according to the excavator.
The French School (G. Touchais, A. Philippa-Touchais and S. Fachard, in collaboration with E. Margaritis) began a new research programme on Prophitis Elias hill, primarily concerned with the diachronic study of fortifications on the Aspis (ID2635). Research has focused on three areas: the northeast (Fig. 81: VI), the semicircular tower and the southeast (Fig. 81: IV). In the northeast, cleaning and excavation of the fortifications confirm an early Hellenistic foundation. The semicircular tower was subject to a stone-by-stone survey (Fig. 82), with particular attention to surface treatment and joints between stones. Excavation in the southeast aimed to clarify the relationship of the 'outer wall' with the rest of the fortifications. Alongside this work dedicated ceramic and palaeoethnobotanical studies took place.
For Sparta in Lakonia, the online publication by the the then Ministry of Culture and Tourism has provided a wealth of new data relating to the Hellenistic and Roman phases of the polis (ID2552) .
In the area of ancient Limnai, part of the Hellenistic city wall, with two orthogonal towers, was recovered north of the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia. A multi-roomed Hellenistic building was excavated on the Georganta-Petrakou property, south of the acropolis. At Mavra Litharia, the harbour of ancient Aigeira (Nachmia Iakovou property), the 37 th EPCA discovered part of the harbour mole oriented east-west (ID2498) (Figs 38, 78). The 17.4m-long stretch revealed three levels: the superstructure was built of cobble stones of varying sizes set horizontally and vertically in cement; the middle level was of courses of dressed masonry of local stone (mostly sandstone), most of which were in secondary use; the bottom layer consists of sand, shell and cobbestones in a natural conformation. The recovered ceramics show that the harbour was built in the second or the first half of the third century AD, coincident with the construction of the theatre at Aigeira in the reign of Maximinus Thrax (AD 235-238) . The abandonment of the harbour should be related to the general abandonment of the city after an earthquake in the mid-third century AD.
Turning to the south, skipping over the recovered marble torso at Epidauros (discussed in the 'Roman Greece' section), the combination of research-driven and rescue archaeologies at Argos has expanded our understanding of that polis. At Herakleous Street (properties of For the Roman period, the large number of rescue excavations undertaken over the past decade has revealed much regarding the domestic character of Roman Sparta; sumptuous villae urbani with mosaic floors, baths, workshops and sections of the city's hydraulic and sewage systems. The broader impact of these discoveries is discussed in the 'Roman Greece' section, but it is worth noting some of the particulars. Excavation of the Panagaki property and the adjacent Markou and Kourkouli plots revealed part of a large, luxurious villa urbana and a sanctuary deposit (Fig. 83). Seven rooms are preserved, plus part of the internal colonnaded garden: several rooms had wall-paintings and all had mosaic floors of the second half of the third century AD with prototypes of Spartan (and wider Greek) geometric compositions and figure scenes. A deposit beneath the house contained miniature vessels, terracotta female protomes (rare in Sparta and probably from acrolithic figures) and terracotta figurines of kourotrophoi, symposiasts, standing male and female figures (naked and clothed) and Artemis as huntress, several of which bear the coroplast's signature. These finds suggest the existence in the area of a cult of Artemis from Archaic to Early Roman times.
Part of another villa urbana discovered on the Katsari property (Fig. 84), has rooms arranged around a large courtyard. Both the rooms and the courtyard have floor mosaics with geometric motifs and figure scenes (Medusa and erotes riding dolphins).
At Magoula (Nikolaros property), A. Themos, E. Zavvou (formerly 5 th EPCA, now Epigraphical Museum), C. Pickersgill (Nottingham) and M. Tsouli (5 th EPCA) conducted rescue excavations and published the recovered material (Themos et al. [2010]), which revealed architectural remains connected with the second-to third-century AD Arapissa Baths immediately to the north of the plot (ID2549). These date initially to the second century, with some rearrangement made during the course of the third. In the fourth century a hall (10 × 8m) with an exedra on the southwest side and a mosaic floor was built over them. The central part of the mosaic was divided into eight panels with scenes from the palaestra. The structure is characterized as a teaching room in a gymnasium.
Knowledge of Sparta's topography was further refined by the discovery of portions of two cemeteries on the boundaries of the Roman city, in the north and southwest. This latter cemetery was used from the Late Hellenistic period until the fifth century AD, but the majority of graves date to the second and third centuries AD. Rescue excavations, far from being the 'poor cousin' to researchdriven archaeology, are driving a refined understanding of the city's topography and history.
More of the impact of Roman rule in southern Lakonia has been illuminated at Gytheion and Epidauros Limera. At Gytheion, the remains of the Hellenistic city wall (Fig.  85), a Roman bath and a public building of unclear function were recovered on the Kapasouri, Agrappidi and Vasilouni-Stathakou properties (ID2554). It is interesting to note the changing function of this area of the settlement -from defence to leisure. Shifting cultural norms can also be seen in the Roman period burials on the acropolis at Epidauros Limera (ID2556) and further south at Plytra (ancient Asopos), on the Venetsanaki-Vraimaki property.
Here, E. Zavvou (formerly 5 th EPCA, now Epigraphical Museum) and A. Maltezou (5 th EPCA) uncovered a Roman columbarium containing multiple burials in successive levels. Most burials date to the first half of the second century AD, though there is some evidence of third-to fourth-century use (Zavvou and Maltezou [2010] 770-71; ID317).
To the west in Arkadia, the funereal character of Hellenistic to Early Roman Mantineia was illuminated by the recovery by A. Karapanagiotou (Director, 39 th EPCA) of 11 inhumations at Milia (Karali property) (ID2417). These burials are unusual in their wealth of offerings, with jewellery of gold and semi-precious stones, gold danakes and vases of special function with relief scenes. This picture of opulence, until now unusual in Arkadian 79. Argos, Alexopoulou property: cremation burial amphora. © Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs, Culture and Sports: 4 th EPCA.
cemeteries, primarily concerns the tombs of the late second century BC to the early first century AD.
S. Fritzilas (39 th EPCA) opened a series of test trenches at Pallantion (just south of Tripolis) in connection with the management of Lake Takka, which extend for ca. 500m along the north-south axis of the ancient city on the lower plain (ID2418). While Archaic to Byzantine occupation was evident, most pottery dated to the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Part of the city wall was traced close to the acropolis, complete with a destroyed tower -perhaps the result of Polyperchon's campaign of 318.
A 24m-long stretch of the central arterial cobbled road (3.6-4.2m wide, with wheel ruts) ran east-west, parallel to the city wall. Beside it was a Hellenistic public stoa -a Γshaped building with north and east wings forming an angle of the agora (the closed north wall faced onto the street). On the north side were foundations for a staircase to an upper storey. Remains of the roof included stamped tiles (some marked ΔΑΜΟΣΙΟΣ with a similar stamp to that used in the reroofing of Temple C on the acropolis) and an acroterion (ID2418; Fritzilas [2011] 125-34). Evidence suggests that the city wall fell out of use in the Roman period, though the public buildings of the city flourished. A relatively short distance away to the southeast, at Doliana, Kouphogi, a Roman period limestone quarry was discovered (ID2433). So while large-scale civic infrastructure projects like fortifications fell into abeyance in the Roman period, new sources of stone were still being sought, providing (in this area at least) an amendment to the decreasingly prevalent narrative of economic disinvestment. To the west of Pallantion at Arachamitai, Agia Paraskevi, B. Forsén (Finnish Institute at Athens) undertook the second excavation season of a new five-year programme (ID2422). Between 2006 and 2008, a magnetometer survey and trial trenches at Agia Paraskevi located a Late Hellenistic rectangular building (RB I), connected to a Late Archaic to Late Hellenistic sanctuary, and a Middle Roman courtyard building (CYB) of unclear function. In 2010, portions of the rectangular building were excavated and 2011's campaign continued and expanded this work. Rooms 1 and 4 were used for bathing (Fig. 86) and recovered pottery suggests RB I was built during the first half of the second century and destroyed during the last decades of the first century BC. The pottery also suggests the building had a connection to food preparation and consumption. Traces of an earlier building (with similar orientation and layout) were found beneath portions of rooms 1 and 4.
No clear sign of cult activity was noted inside the building, although stamps on the roof tiles and a large quantity of broken figurines and miniature vessels indicate a connection to a sanctuary. Two different types of tile stamps were recovered (Fig. 87). The first suggests Ἀρτέμιτος Λυκοάτιδος ('belonging to Artemis Lykoatis'), the second Δέσποινας ΑΚ... ('belonging to Despoina AK...') (ID2422). Artemis appears with the topographical epithet Lykoatis only once, in , in reference to the small Mainalian polis of Lykoa/Lykaia. The stamps seem to suggest that Lykoa/Lykaia was located at Agia Paraskevi of Arachamitai. If so, then the Arachamitai valley is to be identified with the valley of Mainalos and the Agios Elias mountain with Mount Mainalos.
Southwest, at Megalopolis, traces of the Hellenistic city were uncovered by the 39 th EPCA (ID2427). A public building ca. 200m south of the upper diazoma of the theatre koilon was uncovered, and appears to have been destroyed in the late third century BC. A Hellenistic house was uncovered on Sophokleous Street and Late Hellenistic graves were recorded on Lyktora and Kephala Streets (Ο.Τ. 237, Charalambopoulou property).
It is worth pausing briefly to remark on the contrast between Sparta, Messene and Megalopolis. Messene is the site of a long-running research-driven archaeological project. The information on Megalopolis and Sparta comes largely from rescue excavations, with Sparta receiving much more detailed publication. Arguably, the breadth of information coming from Sparta is equal to the depth of information from Messene: two different techniques, focusing on different types of archaeology, providing comparably valuable information. At Megalopolis, however, despite the quality of excavation, the paucity of information allows us to say little more than what phases are represented.
At Messene, P. Themelis (ASA) continues to excavate the Hellenistic Π-shaped north stoa of the agora (ID2563; reports dating back to 2006 are available on AGOnline). It was revealed to be a two-storey building 186m long (Fig.  88). Instead of a series of regular internal divisions for shops were statue niches and two internal Corinthian colonnades, with a Doric façade. The upper storey had an internal Ionic colonnade and Doric half-columns on the exterior; many architectural fragments were recorded (Fig. 89). The lack of internal divisions and the presence of the colonnades are interesting, suggesting a more mixed-use structure than a purely commercial building. This adds nuance to our existing picture of the use of public space at Messene.
Southwest of Messene, on the Messenian Gulf at Petalidi (ancient Koroni), the 38 th EPCA recovered evidence of extensive Roman habitation (ID2572). On the acropolis of Petalidi a large Late Roman building with floor mosaics was recovered, as were the foundations of houses or workshops and a Roman cemetery (Fig. 90), while at Loutro, 3.5km west of Petalidi, a complex of Roman buildings was found close to the known Late Roman bath. This complex includes further baths, furnaces for glass and metal-working, and a peribolos (Fig.  91). Perhaps most interesting was the discovery amongst the Roman buildings of a Classical structure, evidently curated and preserved as a monument in later times.
More Roman period habitation in Messenia was uncovered on the Ionian coast at Mousga, Kyparissia (ID2568). A Roman villa with three construction phases (dating to the first century AD, third century AD and late fourth to early fifth century AD) was excavated. The extensive complex seems to be a villa urbana, with associated bath complex, located quite close to the agora (Fig. 92). Further rescue excavations along the shore revealed a sprawling maritime residential complex, occupied from the second century BC to the fourth century 86. Arachamitai: the circular room 1 with its tile mosaic floor and the niche to the right. © Finnish Institute at Athens. 87. Arachamitai: some examples of the roof tile stamps of RB I. © Finnish Institute at Athens. AD (Fig. 48). Finds such as anchors and hooks, and needles for sewing nets suggest that fishing was the main occupation of the inhabitants.
Far to the north, in Elis, excavations of the Roman settlement at Skafidia under O. Vikatou (Director, 7 th EPCA) continued (ID2503). Remains of Roman buildings which formed part of an extensive planned settlement were found on two building plots, while on the western edge of the Skafidia wood, beside the Iardanos river delta, a large bath complex was explored. The bath complex forms part of a large public or private building in a prominent position and with a commanding view to the sea. The rich architectural finds and material culture attest to the opulence of a complex which remained in use from the first to the fourth century AD. While the information is more extensive in character than systematic, it does appear that the character of Roman period settlement in the western Peloponnese is significantly different from that to be found in the east.

Key trends
There is little need to repeat the caveats from last year's AR, but it is worth remembering that these overviews are necessarily selective and cursory. Much more detail can be found on the relevant entries at AGOnline, but, even so, it is difficult to tease out coherent regional narratives from data composed primarily of necessarily superficial rescue excavation reports.
However, those broad trends identified last year still seem apparent to me in 2011-2012. There is a general paucity of information relating to the Archaic and Classical periods, and what does exist tends to relate to the recovery and study of religious structures, either at established archaeological sites of long-standing interest (Isthmia, Nemea, Sikyon, Thouria and Olympia) or elsewhere (Π.Ο.Τ.Α. Romanou [Pylias], Ano Melpeia [Petroula], Prasidaki, the Mygdalia Hill [Patras]). Some of this is no doubt due to the nature of the archaeology: sanctuaries are recognizable and tend to have a long uselife in antiquity, making them, perhaps, more durable. Similar reasons may account for the recovery of various stretches of fortification (Leonidio, Dimitsana, Triphylia survey).
Technique also drives the nature of the recovered archaeology: the depth of excavation, especially in rescue contexts, means that deep deposits -i.e. those most likely to have survived archaeologically -tend to be of a particular type. Many of the graves relating to this period (at Sparta, Argos, Corinth and Delpriza) were uncovered in advance of large-scale infrastructure projects that have radically reshaped significant stretches of the coastal Peloponnese.
That being said, more direct traces of the economic life of Archaic and Classical inhabitants of the Peloponnese can be seen in the settlement at Perivolia, the potter's workshop at Tegea and the continued (re)study of the diolkos at Corinth.
In contrast, the material from the Hellenistic and Roman periods represents a much more even balance between the rural and the urban, the secular and the sacred. My survey, of course, is not evenly divided in terms of chronology: the Hellenistic and Roman periods represent a longer slice of time. However, these periods also seem to form a larger component of diachronic research projects. This leads to a deeper understanding of the development of various poleis' urban topography (as at Corinth, Sparta, Argos, Gytheion, Pallantion, Megalopolis and Messene). You can even read, albeit coarsely, the different metaphysical landscapes of some of these settlements, the juxtaposition (and not infrequent close spatial relationship) of the living and the dead. The reports on Sikyon, Argos, Epidauros Limera, Plytra, Mantineia, Megalopolis and Petalidi perhaps support this, though one has to be careful not to read too much into short reports.
What is clear is the broader and more specific recovery of the rural economy in these periods. At Π.Ο.Τ.Α. Romanou, Pylias a large Hellenistic rural settlement was excavated and at Triantaphyllia a large fourth-to third-century BC agricultural residence was recorded by the 7 th EPCA (in association with a Mycenaean tholos tomb). Alongside the harbour at Aigeira, the quarry at Doliana and the settlements at Petalidi and Kyparissia, a much more nuanced understanding of regional economies is beginning to emerge, one that moves beyond the simplistic agricultural narrative of settlements reliant on the Mediterranean triad. These are nodes in broader networks, engaging in the full range of economic and industrial activities.
Also in evidence are social networks, of a sort, based on wealth. The villae urbanae of Sparta and Kyparissia, and the extensive villa complexes at Petalidi and Skafidia speak to networks of wealthy citizens far removed from the fishing village of Kyparissia. So while that village was a node in a broader network of local and regional exchange (most likely, though perhaps I overreach), that network operated on a different plane to that which supported the villae. It will be interesting to watch the development of these excavations over time and see if points of interaction between these networks can be pinpointed.
As I write this, I am sitting in the British Library in London, on the day after the opening ceremonies of the 2012 Olympics. One of the prevailing narratives of the run-up to these games has been that of legacy, and it strikes me that the issue of 'legacy' within Classical archaeology is seldom dealt with explicitly. An exception, of course, can be found in the activities of the Mount Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project (http://lykaionexcavation.org/; http://parrhasianheritagepark.org/en/) (ID2419). D.G. Romano (ASCSA/ Pennsylvania), M.E. Voyatzis (ASCSA/Arizona), A. 92. Mousga, Kyparissia: possible villa urbana. © Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs, Culture and Sports: 38 th EPCA. also had responsibility for many of the museums and archaeological projects in the western Peloponnese. Beyond that, he had interests in Hellenistic history, the reception of Greek myths in the art of the Renaissance and international outreach: indeed, he taught Greek sculpture in the American College Year Abroad Program from 1964-1973 and 1984-1995. His death represents a real loss to Greek archaeology, and the Peloponnese in particular, and while he published prolifically, the field is the lesser for his passing.
His legacy is assured, but his passing also represents the passing of a different type of archaeology -the archaeology of the great synthesis. The explosion of archaeological data now available makes any sort of regional or inter-regional synthesis all the harder, while the spread of online resources democratizes access to what had been a previously privileged set of information. This information is not only useful for archaeologists and students of the Greek past, but also to those who seek to profit from the exploitation of that past.
Last year I identified significant trends as being an increase in interdisciplinarity, an engagement with issues of scale, and a more critically aware approach to topography. It was also observed that there was a softening of the distinctions between the various archaeological cultures of researchers in the region (AR 57 [2010(AR 57 [ -2011 62). In a sense, this still holds true for research projects in 2011-2012, insomuch as the drive towards interdisciplinarity produces methodologies (and datasets) that approach comparability, irrespective of the national origin of those projects.
The differences between research-driven archaeology and rescue archaeology are well documented, and the contrast between the two approaches in respect to methodologies and outcomes is to be expected, if not welcomed. Rescue archaeology, by its nature, demands speed, an emphasis on description over interpretation and the skilful deployment of limited resources. The publication of the activities of the Archaeological Service is very much to be welcomed, and it highlights the impressive range of activities and skills of Ephoreia staff. It also highlights the incredible demands placed on those staff, demands that necessitate difficult choices with an important knock-on effect to our understanding of the past and the protection of Greece's cultural heritage.
Without a doubt, this is a significant moment within Greek archaeology. The economic situation within Greece and the wider European Union region, and the dire forecasts for the future, have severe ramifications for the cultural heritage of Greece.
The staff of the Archaeological Service face dwindling resources at a time when the risk to sites of historic interest is rising. This is an issue that is not confined to Greece, of course, but it is one which should provoke wider discussion of what the ethical and responsible approaches of researchers should be in the current economically and politically challenging climate prevailing across Europe. How those of us who work in Greek archaeology face up to these challenges will determine how knowledge is produced, disseminated and interrogated for at least a generation. That is a conversation worth having. That is a legacy worth considering.
In closing, however, I return to the opening of the Parrhasian Heritage Park. This long-term intervention to preserve an area of outstanding natural and cultural significance represents a model collaboration between the local communities, Greek planning professionals, the Mount Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project (ASCSA) and the 39 th EPCA in Tripolis. A good omen for the future.