Assessment of economically important tree-based NTFPs in Indo-Burma region, Manipur, India

ABSTRACT The present study was undertaken to identify economically important NTFPs yielding tree species. Surveys were conducted in 15 local markets in 7 districts of the state and assessment of value-added forest products were also conducted in Van Dhan Vikas Kendra (VDVK), a nationalized minor forest products market. During the survey, a total of 33 NTFPs yielding tree species with varied uses were recorded. Among those, edible fruit species were found to be the most important category with the most profitable items. Some species like, Baccaurea sapida, Docynia indica, Elaeocarpus floribundus, Phyllanthus emblica, Ficus semicordata, Prunus napaulensis, Rhus semialata, Spondias pinnata and Ziziphus mauritiana were utilised in value addition for making different items like candies, pickles, jams, beverages, etc, which have price range of 400–1200 INR per kg having a far higher market value than the raw form, and eventually improve the income of the locals. Poor transportation and unestablished market channels were some of the constraints faced by the people in the trade of NTFPs. Establishing proper market channels would help in improving livelihood of the locals.


Introduction
NTFPs refer to any biological products other than timber harvested from the wild by humans, which directly or indirectly supports their livelihood (Shackleton et al. 2011). It is estimated that approximately 40% of the world population uses NTFPs (Shackleton and de Vos 2022). India is one of the world's 12 mega diversity centres and harbours about 21,984 species of Angiosperms and 82 species of Gymnosperm (Mao et al. 2021). Being an emerging country, it has a sizable population of forest dwellers who rely on forest resources to meet their daily needs NTFPs thus benefit the society, the culture, and the economy. The North-Eastern region of the Indian subcontinent lies in the confluence of the Himalaya and Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspots (Mittermier et al. 2011). Forests cover almost 65% of the region total geographical area (FSI, 2021). It is inhabited by more than 145 tribal communities with diverse culture and tradition (Ali and Das 2003). They rely on forest resources and, for their livelihood, are engaged in a traditional agriculture practice known as jhum or shifting cultivation. The region is well recognised for its rich wealth of NTFPs which provides diversified food, medicine, bio-energy, household items, etc, to the diverse communities (e.g. Talukdar et al. 2021).
Manipur is one of the North-Eastern region states of India. Forests cover about 74% of the 22,327 square kilometres of the state total geographical area (FSI, 2021). It is inhabited mostly by 'Meitei' indigenous communities in its 5 valley districts, and by around 32 tribal communities in the 11 hill districts (Rongmei and Kapoor 2005). The people of the state generally depend on forest resources for fulfilling various needs, as reported by various ethnobotanical studies (Lokho and Narasimhan 2013;Nanda et al. 2013;Panmei et al. 2019). However, studies focusing on NTFPs sold locally are scarce. Keeping this in mind, the present study intends to provide information on NTFPs provided by the above ground parts of trees that support local livelihoods. In this context, the study is carried out with the following objectives: (1) evaluating the diversity of such NTFPs and their yielding tree species found in the markets (2) assessing the utilization pattern of these NTFPs (3) identifying the species used in value addition along with their source of supply.

Study site
The present study was conducted in Manipur, a north-eastern state of India. Market surveys were conducted in 15 local markets in 7 districts of the state (Figure 1). Assessment of valueadded forest products was also conducted in VDVK stalls (Van Dhan Vikas Kendra, a nationalized minor forest products market). These stalls were opened in an exhibition called 'Mai-Own' which was held from 16 th -22 March 2021 at Hapta Kangjeibung, Imphal East, Manipur. In this exhibition, income generating forest products, especially value-added wild edibles, are commercialised, and altogether 13 stalls representing 13 districts of the state were surveyed.

Data collection
Market surveys were conducted through personal interviews of the vendors using a semistructured questionnaire during the months of March 2021 to November 2021 (see questionnaire in supplementary file). Interviews included all vendors who were found to be selling NTFPs. A total of 58 vendors were thus interviewed from the local markets, and an additional 13 vendors were interviewed in the thirteen VDVK stalls representing 13 districts of the state. All the vendors were women with an age range between 44 and 77 years. In local markets, 51 vendors were from Meitei communities and the remaining 7 vendors were tribal/forest dwellers, whereas in the VDVK market, a majority of the stalls (10) were run by tribal and forest dwellers.

Identification of the collected species
Photographs of all the species were taken and herbarium specimens of NTFPs yielding species that could not be identified on the spot were prepared. All the collected NTFPs yielding species from the market were identified using relevant taxonomic literature (Singh et al. 2000; eflora of India, https://efloraindia.bsi.gov.in/eFlora/eFloraHomePage.action). For correct nomenclature, author citation and family delimitation, online data base such as the plant list (www.theplantlist.org/), the world flora online (www.worldfloraonline.org/) and International Plant Name Index (www.ipni.org) were consulted.

Data analysis
To understand the usage pattern and mode of utilization, the recorded NTFPs are classified into five categories. All the edible fruits, ripe or unripe, eaten raw or processed as pickle or dried, are placed under the category "edible fruits" (Edi-Fr). Plant parts such as leaves, inforescences, etc., that are chewed directly, made into salad or chutney or consumed after cooking, boiling, frying, roasting or made in soup or porridge, are categorised as "vegetables" (Veg.). Plant parts such as fruit, leaf and bark used as spice or/and condiments are placed under "spices and condiments" (Sp & Con.). Plant parts used as household items such as soap substitute or for lighting purpose are placed under "household items" (Ho-I). Plant parts such as fruits, flowers and rosin which are used in various ritual ceremonies are placed under "rituals activities" (Rit-Act.). Most of the products were sold in bundles, heaps, or in cans. For uniform quantification, weighs were measured in Kilogram (kg) using a portable electronic scale for each NTFP, and the prices were recorded in Indian Rupee (INR). 1

Results and discussion
The people of Manipur have been dependant on forest produces in many aspects for their day to day life. The vernacular name, part(s) used, market value, and other information for each species that has been recorded is presented in Table 1. Some of the tree-based NTFPs sold in the local markets and processed items are also shown in Figure 2.

Diversity of the NTFPs yielding tree species and parts used
A total of 33 NTFPs yielding tree species, belonging to 29 genera and distributed into 20 families of Angiosperm and 2 families of Gymnosperm were recorded (Table 1). Among the Angiosperm families, Lauraceae and Moraceae had 4 species each, followed by Anacardiaceae (3 spp.), while the remaining families had 1 species each. Gymnosperm is represented by two families viz. Pinaceae and Gnetaceae (Gymnosperm) and had 1 species each. All the NTFPs were mostly collected from forest and fallow lands. During the study, only above ground parts of the trees were found. Fruit was the most widely utilized part (19 species), followed by leaf (7 spp.), flower (3 spp.), bark (1 sp.) heartwood (1 sp.) and resin (1 sp.).

Edible fruits (Edi-Fr) category
A total of 17 species belong to this category ( Table 1). The price of these fruits ranges from 40 to 500 INR per kg. The Manipur state was found to have about 50 wild edible fruit tree species (Hazarika and Singh 2018), out of which 17 are found by the present study to be sold in the markets. It may be considered that the state is a reservoir of livelihood supporting wild edible fruits tree species.

Vegetables (Veg.)
A total of 8 vegetable yielding species were recorded. Leaves of 6 species, and inflorescences of 2 species belong to this category (Table 1) The recorded species have price range of 50 to 500 INR per kg. These species are highly appreciated by locals as a delicacy. Some of these wild vegetables such as Antidesma acidum, Gnetum gnemon and Wendlandia glabrata are also known to have higher nutritional value than some cultivated vegetables (Panmei et al. 2016;Loukrakpam et al. 2019). Consumption of wild edible vegetables is a common practice among rural and people residing in and around forested areas.

Spices and condiments (Sp & Con.)
Plant parts of 4 species viz, fruit of Litsea cubeba, leaf of Cinnamomum tamala, flower of Zanthoxylum acanthopodium and bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum belong to this category (Table 1). All the 4 species are among the highly demanded spices in the state, fetching prices ranging from 60 to 200 INR per kg. These 4 species are also traded for their multiple uses such as spice and medicine in other northeast states of India and neighbouring countries such as China, Sri Lanka and Nepal (e.g. Sharma and Rao 2014;Phuyal et al. 2019).

Household item (Ho-I)
Dry fruit of Sapindus mukorossi, used as a soap substitute, and heartwood of Pinus kesiya, used as fire starter, belong to this category ( Table 1) with prices of 200 and 500 INR per kg respectively. The use of these two products is an age-old traditional practice among the different rural and forest communities of the state. Use and sale of Sapindus mukorossi dry fruits had been reported in other Himalayan regions such as Nepal (Shrestha et al. 2020).

Ritual activities (Rit-Act.)
A total of 12 species belong to this category (Table 1). Fruits of Docynia indica, Phyllanthus emblica, Spondias pinnata, Terminalia chebula, Ziziphus mauritiana were found to be available in the markets in fresh, dried or semi-decomposed form throughout the year. These fruits are utilised in preparing 'Heiram-taret'. 'Heiram' meaning different types of fruits and taret meaning 7 (seven) in Meitei dialect. This mix of seven fruits is the most essential item required in many important ritual ceremonies of the Meitei community. A set of Heiram taret fetches a market value of 10 INR and is considered by vendors as the most profitable item in the local markets. The utilization of diversified products in the ritual sector indicates the existence of a strong relationship between culture and biodiversity, as reported by Negi (2010). The tradition of putting value to the lesser valued items like semi-decomposed fruit can be taken as an example showcasing minimal wastage of bio-resources.

Value addition of wild edible products
Out of the 17 edible fruits, 10 species were found to be processed into various items such as candies, pickles, jams, and beverages. Another species, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, an indispensable spice of all food recipes, was also sold in powder form in VDVK stalls at a much higher price than the unprocessed bark. Processing these fruits and bark adds value to the products, as shown in Table 2. In addition, it minimises post-harvest losses and diversifies the products (Parveen et al. 2014). The value addition activities of various plant products also help empowering women, increase income generation, skill development, and overall economic status of the society (Vijayalakshmi et al. 2010). From our finding, we recommend that the above 10 species be considered for improving the socio-economic status of the locals in the state. Therefore, proper conservation strategies and propagation techniques should be developed for sustainable utilization of the species.

Source and trade channel of NTFPs
A total of 14 districts were found contributing in the supply of NTFPs (Figure 3) to our selected markets. Among these, Imphal East and Senapati contributed the maximum number of species (13 each), followed by Ukhrul (11). Most of the NTFPs sold by the vendors of hill districts were directly sourced from the primary collectors, whereas NTFPs sold in markets of the valley districts were obtained from local traders (Figure 4).

Challenges in the trade of NTFPs
The various ethnic communities in the state have profound knowledge in selection and utilization of NTFPs. However, primary collectors face important constraints in the trade of NTFPs. For instance, trade of raw edible fruits such as Choerospondias axillaris, Myrica esculenta and Prunus napaulensis were confined only to the hill districts. This is due to poor road condition and connectivity and to frequent bandh and blockage in the state, which leads to easy deterioration of perishable items, as already noted by Apshahana and Sharma (2022).

Conclusion
Our study shows that 33 wild forest tree species provide 43 different NTFPs that are sold in the markets of Manipur state. These NTFPs include products that are used as edible fruits, vegetables, spices and condiments, household items, and for ritual activities. Wild edible fruits are the most important category in terms of number of species (17) and in terms of value addition (on a total of 10 NTFPs sold also in a processed form, 9 are fruit species and one is a spice species). This study provides baseline data for researchers working on NTFPs in the areas of nutraceutical analysis, conservation biology and market-chain analysis, in the context of the two Global Biodiversity Hotspots where the study area falls in.