Terrain map of Mpala Research Centre showing north-south rainfall gradient and schematic of the experimental design.

Three blocks, each containing one 100×100-m replicate of each treatment, are situated at each circled location on the map; 20 km separates the northern (low-rainfall) and southern (high-rainfall) sites. Red lines indicate dirt roads. (A) Total-exclusion plots exclude all large herbivores; (B) mesoherbivore-exclusion plots exclude all herbivores larger than warthogs; (C) megaherbivore-exclusion plots exclude elephants and giraffes only; (D) open plots are accessible to all species.