Task and model.

(A) During the task, we manipulated whether the information could be used in the future by including both long and short horizon sequences. In both trial types, monkeys initially received four samples (“observations”) from the unknown underlying reward distributions. In short horizon trials, they then made a one-off decision between the two options presented on screen (“choice”). In long horizon trials, they could make four consecutive choices between the two options (fixed reward distributions). On the first choice (highlighted), the information content was equivalent between short and long horizon trials (same number of observations), whereas the information context was different (learning and updating is only beneficial in the long horizon trials). (B) Example short and long horizon trials. The monkeys first received some information about the reward distributions associated with choosing the left and right option. The length of the orange bar indicates the number of drops of juice they could have received (0–10 drops). The horizon length of the trial is indicated by the size of the grey area below the four initial samples. The monkeys then make one (short horizon) or four (long horizon) subsequent choices. As monkeys progressed through the four choices, more information about the distributions was revealed. Displayed here is a partial information trial where only information about the chosen option is revealed. (C) Ideal model observer for the options of the example trial shown in B (color code corresponds to the side of the option). The distributions correspond to the probabilities to observe the next outcome for each option. The expected value corresponds to the peak of the distribution and the uncertainty to the variance. Thick lines correspond to post-outcome estimate and thin lines to pre-outcome estimates (from the previous trial). (D) We also modulated the contingency between choice and information by including different feedback conditions. In the partial feedback condition, monkeys only receive feedback for the chosen option. In contrast, in the complete feedback condition, they receive feedback about both options after active choices (not in the observation phase). (E) Example partial and complete feedback trials (both short horizon). Here, the observation phase shown in (B) is broken up into the components the monkeys see on screen during the experiment. Initially, the samples were displayed on screen, but a red circle in the center indicates that the monkeys could not yet respond. After a delay, the circle disappears, and the monkeys could choose an option. After they responded, the chosen side was highlighted (red outline). After another delay, the outcome was revealed. In the partial feedback condition (top), only the outcome for the chosen option was revealed. In contrast, in the complete feedback condition (bottom), both outcomes were revealed. After another delay, the reward for the chosen option was delivered in both conditions.