Estimates of β-coefficient values (respective standard errors in parentheses) for individual covariates associated with probabilities of leopard presence (Ψ) outside protected reserves in Karnataka, for the top 11 models from the candidate set (cumulative AIC weight >0.95).

All models include fixed covariates for detectability [p(city+area)]. Subscripts for β-coefficients: int- intercept; vcov- vegetation cover; irrg- irrigated crop fields; rock- rocky escarpments; dogs- density of dogs; lstk- density of livestock; rain- annual rainfall; area- size of sub-district; city- average distance to eight major cities.